Limes Pannoniae
The limes played a decisive role in the life of the Empire's NE border province, Pannonia: the life and history of the province are inseparable from the history of the limes. During the 1st and 2d c. the limes was important in furthering Rome's expansionist policies. In the 3d and 4th c. it played an increasingly defensive role. Its development was actually completed during the 4th c. when a seemingly impenetrable chain of fortifications—consisting of new camps, numerous small forts, guard towers, and bridgeheads—was built on the banks of the Danube.
The building of the limes began during the 1st c., following the Roman conquest, with temporary earth and timber camps to protect the major crossings of the Danube. During the last third of the 1st c. the camps were rebuilt in stone, and in the sections between them the system of auxiliary field camps was developed. The rebuilding in stone of the whole system took place at the end of Trajan's reign and at the beginning of Hadrian's. The fortifications of the limes were heavily damaged during the barbarian invasions of the second half of the 2d and 3d c., but they were always rebuilt after the wars. During the rebuilding at the beginning of the 4th c., the camps were reinforced with large bulwark towers. On the most vulnerable stretches new camps and bridgeheads were added, and during the last third of the century defense was strengthened with the erection of dozens of guard towers. Probably under Constantine there was dug in the forefront of the limes, at the border of the Sarmatian settlement, a skein of trenches under Roman supervision, connecting at either end with the Danube limes, to insure the stone fortress system along the Danube. The limes of Pannonia lost its defensive role and significance during the first decades of the 5th c. following the Hun invasion; the fortresses were abandoned and slowly fell into ruin.
The heart of the fortress system was in the four legionary camps of the territory, all of them built on the N front. Vindobona (Vienna) was the headquarters of the Legio X Gemina, Carnuntum (Deutsch-Altenburg) of the Legio XIV Gemina, Brigetio (Szöny) of the Legio I Auditrix, Aquincum (Budapest) of the Legio II Auditrix. The most completely excavated among them is the camp of Carnuntum (400 x 450 m), but there have been significant excavations at the sites of the other camps as well.
Most of the auxiliary camps have now been identified. Naming them in the order in which they line the Danube as it flows towards the sea, they are Cannabiaca (Klosterneuburg), Ala Nova (Wien-Schwechat), Aequinoctium (Fischamend), Gerulata (Oroszvár-Rušovce), Ad Flexum (Magyaróvár), Quadrata (Barátoföldpuszta), Arrabona (Győr), Ad Statuas (Ács-Vaspuszta), Ad Mures (Ács- Bum-bunikut), Celamantia (Leányvár), Azaum (Almásfüzitő), Crumerum (Nyergesujfalu), Tokod, Solva (Esztergom), Esztergom-Hideglelőskereszt, Castra ad Herculem (Pilismarót), Visegrád, Cirpi (Dunabogány), Ulcisia castra (Szentendre), Göd-Ilkamajor, Budapest-March 15 Square, Budapest-Albertfalva, Campona (Budapest-Nagytétény), Matrica (Százhalombatta), Vetus Salina (Adony), Intercisa (Dunaujváros), Annamatia (Baracs), Lussonium (Dunakömlőd), Alta Ripa (Tolna), Alisca (Őcsény), Ad Statuas (Várdomb), Lugio (Dunaszekcső), Altinum (Kölked), Ad Militare (Batina), Teutoburgium (Dalj), Cornacum (Šotin), Bononia (Banoštor), Castellum Onagrinum (Begeć), Rakovac, Cusum (Petrovaradin), Acumincum (Slankamen), Rittium (Surduk), Burgenae (Novi Banovci), Taurunum (Zemun). The auxiliary camps built during the 2d c. usually were regular in ground plan, rectangular, measured ca. 150-175 by 200-250 m, and were surrounded by a double trench. The camps built during the 4th c. had an irregular base, and were built mostly on elevations or mountain tops. Significant excavations have been made in the camps at Cirpi, Ulcisia castra, Albertfalva, Budapest-March 15 Square, Campona, Vetus Salina, and Intercisa.
The early remains of the chain of guard towers between the camps are still unknown. The location of the wooden guard towers, depicted on Trajan's Column, has not yet been found. Only a few of the stone guard towers built in the 2d and 3d c. are extant, but a comparatively large number of inscribed building slabs from the time of Commodus have come down to us. More is known about monuments of the 4th c., especially about those in the era of Valentinian I. The guard towers vary in ground plan, some being round, others 10 m square. The bridgeheads and small square fortresses represent still another variation in ground plan. The best-known guard towers are on the section around Carnuntum and Brigetio-Aquincum. Many of these also have been excavated.
See also Limes Pannoniae (Yugoslav sector) for Ad Militare, Teutoburgium, Cornacum, Bononia, Cusum, Acumincum, Rittium, Burgenae, Taurunum.
BIBLIOGRAPHYE. Fabricius, “Limes,” PWRE 13; A. Mócsy, “Pannonia,” PWRE 9 (Suppl.); A. Graf, Übersicht der antiken Geographie von Pannonien (1936); id., Der römische Limes in Österreich; Limes u Iugoslaviji I (1961); S. Soproni, “Limes Sarmatiae,” Archaeologiai Értesitö 96 (1969).
S. SOPRONIThe fortification system on the frontier of the Roman Empire had already been organized in Pannonia along the right bank of the Danube in the time of Claudius. The archeological investigations on the Yugoslav part of the Pannonian limes to the present time are insufficient to determine as precisely as has been done in the N (cf. A. Mócsy, Pannonia, RE IX [1962] col. 632ff, with biblio.) the stages of building and rebuilding of the military camps in the first centuries A.D. However, as a result of the systematic surveying and excavating of several sites in the last two decades (Teutoburgium, Bononia, Cusum, Acumincum, Burgenae, etc.), it is possible to reconstruct the fortification scheme of defense and to identify the places which protected the frontier for ca. 300 km, from Ad Militare in the N to Taurunum in the SE. Since the Danube was in itself an efficient natural frontier, the limes in Pannonia consisted of a series of individual fortifications (castella, turres, specula, etc.) built on strategically favorable sites within view of each other to ensure easy communication and signaling. The road connecting these fortifications was solely of military importance and was documented from the archeological finds and from the milestones. The road followed the bank of the Danube, except from Ad Militare to Teutoburgium, where it ran inland due to an alluvial and swampy zone along the river bed. From N to S downstream on the Danube, the following important fortifications have been documented on the Yugoslav part of the Pannonian limes:
Ad Militare (Batina).An important fortress on the hill called Gradina, the temporary residence of Cohors II Asturum et Callaecorum. In the 4th c. A.D. a division of the Flavian cavalry—equites Flavienses—was stationed here. Also documented are a civil settlement, a cemetery, and many incidental finds—a milestone, brick stamps, etc.
Ad Novas (Zmajevac).A castellum (ca. 150 x 120 m), on the site Gradina. It was an important crossroads from which a road leads through Sopiana to the S. In late antiquity Auxilia Novensia and equites Dalmatae were stationed here. Incidental finds include building material, brick stamps (Legio IV Herculia), implements, arms, pottery, coins. Two golden scabbards from the period of the great migration and a gold coin of Theodosius II were found here. A necropolis with built tombs is also documented.
Teutoburgium (Dalj).One of the most important fortresses situated close to a brick factory in the village Dalj. The first army units stationed here were ala II Hispanorum et Arvacorum and ala praetoria civium Romanorum. The Notitia Dignitatum mentions Teutoburgium as the seat of the prefect of the Legio V Herculia and later of cuneus equitum Dalmatarum and of equites promoti. Excavations in 1966 unearthed architectural remains, arms, implements, pottery, coins, etc., dating from the 1st to the 4th c.
Cornacum (Sotin).A small fortress on a steep hill on the banks of the Danube, the tribal capital of Cornacates. Brick stamps (exercitus Pannoniae inferioris, Legio VI Herculia) were found here. In late antiquity cuneus equitum scutariorum and equites Dalmatae are mentioned here. Arms, pottery, coins, etc., were found here.
Cuccium (Ilok).A small fortress almost completely destroyed, where mediaeval fortress was built later. According to Notitia, it was the residence of cuneus equitum promotorum and equites sagittarii. The remains of an aqueduct, inscriptions, and small objects have been discovered.
Bononia-Malata (Banoštor).An important fortress which served as a port for Sirmium on the Danube. Here also there was a bridge over the river. The site was excavated in 1965 and 1970-71. The remains of houses dated 1st-4th c., baths, an Barly Christian church with cemetery are well preserved. Architectural remains and objects from the migration period (5th-6th c.). According to Notitia, Bononia was the residence of some units of Legio V lovia. The fortress and the settlement Onagrinum on the left bank of the Danube, opposite Bononia, protected the bridge over the Danube. Architectural remains of military and civil buildings together with numerous and various archeological material were found there.
Cusum (Petrovaradin).A smaller fortress destroyed to build a mediaeval castle. The residence of equites Dalmatae. A milestone indicating the mileage from Malata to Cusum XVI milia passuum was discovered as well as other archeological material.
Acumincum (Stari Slankamen).An important castellum on Gradina hill, civil settlement, and necropolis. In the time of the Domitian wars against the Dacians and Jazigi, the Cohors I Cantabrorum was stationed here. According to Notitia cuneus equitum Constantium and equites sagittarii were also here. Excavations have uncovered several Roman buildings (1st-4th c.). On the site called Dugorep, close to Gradina part of fortification with strong circuit walls was discovered.
Rittium (Surduk).A larger fortification (300 x 400 in), on the Gradina hill. Architectural remains, pottery, and other small finds were discovered, as well as two arae dedicated to Jupiter Dolichenus and brick stamps (Cohors II Asturum and Cohors II Ituraeorum). In late antiquity this was the residence of equites Dalmatae.
Burgenae (Novi Banovci).An important fortification (500 x 600 m), the residence of Cohors I Thracum civium Romanorum, civil settlement, necropolis. In late antiquity, according to Notitia, cuneus equitum Constantianarum, a part of Lagio V Iovia as well as equites Dalmatae were stationed here. The site has been excavated.
Taurunum (Zemun).A fortress, the residence of several units of Legio VII Claudia. Brick stamps (exercitus Pannoniae, classis Flavia Pannonica) arms, implements, pottery, and coins were found here. According to Notitia, equites promoti were stationed here in the 4th c.
In addition to these sites, archeological investigations have been conducted at other fortifications. For the order of importance of the material, we mention here: Kneževi vinogradi, Nemetin, Šarengrad, Neštin, Rakovac, Čortanovci.
BIBLIOGRAPHYJ. Klemec, “Limes u Donjoj Panoniji,” Limes u Jugoslaviji, I (1961) 5-34; id., “Der Pannonische Limes in Jugoslawien,” Quintus Congressus Internationalis Limitis Romanis Studiosorum (1963); D. Pinterović, “Limesstudien in der Baranja und in Slawonien,” Archaelogia Iugoslavica 9 (1968); D. Dimitrijević, “Istraživanje rimskog limesa u istočnom Sremu, s posebnim osvrtom na pitanje komunikacija,” Osiječki zbornik 12 (1969).
P. PETROVIC